System Design: Load Balancing
Master traffic distribution, Layer 4 vs Layer 7 proxies, routing algorithms, consistent hashing rings, GSLB, and high-availability health checks.
1. What is Load Balancing?
A Load Balancer acts as a high-performance traffic director positioned in front of your server infrastructure. It accepts incoming network requests from clients and distributes them efficiently across multiple backend servers to ensure no single server becomes a bottleneck.
Core Load Balancer Architecture
System DesignTraffic distribution across a monitored cluster with automated health checks
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]Scalability & Horizontal Scaling
Enables web applications to scale horizontally by adding commodity servers to a pool rather than upgrading a single expensive machine.
High Availability & Resilience
Prevents single points of failure (SPOF). If a server crashes or requires maintenance, traffic is automatically routed to surviving nodes.
Security & TLS Offloading
Offloads resource-intensive TLS/SSL decryption from application servers and shields backend servers from direct public internet exposure.
Traffic Management & Rate Limiting
Provides centralized entry points for throttling malicious traffic, managing DDoS attacks, and enforcing web application firewall (WAF) rules.
2. Layer 4 vs Layer 7 Load Balancing
Load balancers operate primarily at two distinct layers of the OSI model: Layer 4 (Transport Layer) and Layer 7 (Application Layer). Choosing the right layer determines the proxy's performance, flexibility, and operational overhead.
Layer 4 vs Layer 7 Traffic Routing
System DesignTransport-level packet forwarding vs Application-level content inspection
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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]| Feature | Layer 4 (Transport Layer) | Layer 7 (Application Layer) |
|---|---|---|
| Inspection Depth | IP headers & TCP/UDP port numbers only | Full HTTP headers, URLs, cookies, & JSON body payloads |
| Performance & Throughput | Ultra-high throughput, near-zero CPU latency (Packet NAT) | Moderate throughput, requires CPU for TLS decryption & parsing |
| Content Awareness | No awareness of HTTP requests, cookies, or routes | Path-based routing (e.g. /api vs /static), header routing |
| TLS Termination | Passes raw encrypted bytes through to backend servers | Terminates TLS at proxy; encrypts or forwards cleartext internally |
| Example Implementations | HAProxy (TCP mode), AWS Network Load Balancer (NLB), IPVS | Nginx, Envoy, AWS Application Load Balancer (ALB), Traefik |
3. Load Balancing Algorithms
A load balancing algorithm dictates how incoming connections are selected and distributed across the available backend servers.
1. Round Robin
Distributes requests sequentially down the list of servers. Simple and stateless, but assumes all servers have equal capacity and equal job execution times.
Round Robin Request Distribution
System DesignRequests are handed out in a fixed, repeating order across the server list
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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"fontSize": 11,
"fontFamily": 5,
"textAlign": "center",
"verticalAlign": "middle",
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"id": "rr-note",
"type": "text",
"x": 260,
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"strokeColor": "#8b4dde",
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"strokeWidth": 1,
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"roughness": 0,
"opacity": 100,
"seed": 35,
"version": 1,
"versionNonce": 36,
"isDeleted": false,
"text": "Request 4 cycles back to Server A, the order repeats indefinitely.",
"fontSize": 12,
"fontFamily": 5,
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]2. Weighted Round Robin
Assigns a numeric weight to each node based on hardware specs (e.g. Server A = weight 3, Server B = weight 1). Server A receives 3x more requests.
Weighted Round Robin Distribution
System DesignHigher-capacity nodes are assigned a larger share of incoming traffic
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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{
"id": "wrr-client",
"type": "rectangle",
"x": 40,
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"id": "wrr-arrow-client-lb",
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"y": 170,
"width": 60,
"height": 0,
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"id": "wrr-arrow-lb-a",
"type": "arrow",
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"height": -90,
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]3. Least Connections
Directs new requests to the server with the fewest active open connections. Optimal for long-lived connections such as WebSockets or database pools.
Least Connections Routing
System DesignNew requests go to whichever server currently has the fewest open connections
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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"text": "Server A, 42 active conns",
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]4. IP Hash
Hashes the client's IPv4/IPv6 address to deterministically route the client to the same server node every time, providing basic session persistence.
IP Hash Routing
System DesignA hash of the client IP deterministically maps that client to the same backend server
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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]Consistent Hashing & Virtual Nodes
Standard modulo hashing (Hash(Key) % N) fails catastrophically when a server node is added or removed because N changes, causing almost 100% of keys to re-map and invalidating distributed caches (cache stampede).
Consistent Hashing maps both servers and keys onto a circular hash ring (0 to 232-1). A key is assigned to the first server encountered moving clockwise on the ring. When a server is added or removed, only K / N keys are remapped on average!
Consistent Hashing Ring Architecture
System DesignVirtual nodes ensure uniform distribution across the 32-bit hash space
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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]Virtual Nodes (VNodes)
To prevent non-uniform key distribution (hotspots) due to sparse physical node placement, each physical server is mapped to dozens or hundreds of virtual positions (virtual nodes) across the ring.
Consistent Hashing Algorithm in Python
Virtual node mapping, circular ring placement, and clockwise lookup
Press Run to execute the code and see output here.
4. Hardware vs Software Load Balancers
Hardware Load Balancers
- Description:Specialized physical rack appliances built with custom ASICs or FPGAs.
- Vendors:F5 BIG-IP, Citrix ADC (NetScaler), A10 Networks.
- Pros:Unmatched raw throughput, gigabit-per-second packet processing, hardware TLS chips.
- Cons:Extremely expensive ($10k–$100k+), complex physical management, poor flexibility in automated CI/CD pipelines.
Software Load Balancers
- Description:Applications running on standard Linux VMs, bare-metal servers, or cloud containers.
- Technologies:Nginx, HAProxy, Envoy Proxy, Traefik, AWS ALB/NLB.
- Pros:Open-source, highly flexible, programmable via API/IaC (Terraform), cost-effective.
- Cons:Bound by general-purpose CPU and Linux kernel OS networking stack limits.
Production Nginx Reverse Proxy & Load Balancer Config
Upstream pool configuration, IP hashing, weights, and health check locations
Press Run to execute the code and see output here.
5. Global Server Load Balancing (GSLB)
While traditional load balancers manage traffic inside a single data center, Global Server Load Balancing (GSLB) routes user traffic across multiple geographically distributed data centers around the globe.
Global Server Load Balancing (GSLB) Architecture
System DesignGeoDNS routing user queries to nearest data center cluster
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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]GeoDNS Routing
Inspects the client's DNS resolver IP address and returns the IP of the data center nearest to the user, minimizing round-trip time (RTT).
BGP Anycast
Announces the exact same IP address from multiple data centers worldwide. Internet routers automatically pick the shortest network path via BGP.
6. Health Checks and Failover
Load balancers continuously send probe requests to backend nodes to verify operational health. If a node fails a set number of consecutive checks, it is temporarily removed from the active routing pool until health is restored.
Health Check & Automated Failover Sequence
System DesignActive probe polling, failure threshold detection, and automatic traffic migration
100%
Loading system design canvas…
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]Active Health Checks
The load balancer proactively pings endpoints (e.g. GET /health) every N seconds. Requires backend HTTP 200 OK response within a timeout period.
Passive Health Checks
Monitors real user traffic. If a backend node generates 500 Internal Server Errors or connection timeouts on real client requests, it is marked down.
7. Sticky Sessions (Session Affinity)
Sticky Sessions (or Session Affinity) ensure that all subsequent requests from a specific client browser are directed to the same physical backend server throughout the session.
How Cookie-Based Stickiness Works
On the initial request, the Layer 7 load balancer injects a unique HTTP cookie (e.g., SERVERID=node_A). On subsequent requests, the browser sends the cookie back, telling the load balancer to route directly to node_A.
Architectural Best Practice: Statelessness
Sticky sessions create uneven traffic distribution and prevent smooth failover if the sticky server crashes. Modern microservices store session state in a centralized Redis cache instead of local server RAM!
Load Balancing Knowledge Verification
1. What is the primary operational distinction between Layer 4 and Layer 7 Load Balancing?
2. Why is Consistent Hashing superior to standard Hash (Key % N) modulo routing in distributed server pools?
3. Which Load Balancing algorithm is best suited when backend servers have different hardware capacities (e.g., 64GB RAM vs 16GB RAM)?
4. What mechanism does Global Server Load Balancing (GSLB) primarily rely on to route users to the geographically nearest data center?
5. What is a major trade-off when using Sticky Sessions (Session Affinity) via load balancer cookies in stateful applications?